Incremental profit Essay Example for Free

Incremental profit Essay Distinguish between the following: a) Industry demand and Firm (Company) demand, b) Short-run demand and Long run demand, and c) Durable goods’ demand and Non-durable goods demand. 2 . What are the problems faced in determining the demand for a durable good? Illustrate with example of demand for households refrigerator or television set. 3 . Analyze the method by which a firm can allocate the given advertising budget between different media of advertisement. 4 . What kind of relationship would you postulate between short-run and long-run average cost curves when these are not U-shaped as suggested by the modern theories? 5 . How do demand forecasting methods for new products vary from those for established products? 6 . What are the different methods of measuring national income? Which methods have been followed in India? 7 . What do you understand by the investment multiplier? In what way does it defend the policy of public works on the part of the state during business depression? 8 . Discuss the various phases of business cycle: a. Are cyclical fluctuations necessary for economic growth? b. Suggest appropriate fiscal and monetary policies for depression Assignment B: all Case Study Electron Control, Inc., sells voltage regulators to other manufacturers, who then customize and distribute the products to quality assurance labs for their sensitive test equipment. The yearly volume of output is 15,000 units. The selling price and cost per unit are shown below:Â  Selling price $200 Costs: Direct material $35 Direct labor 50 Variable overhead 25 Variable selling expenses 25 Fixed selling expenses 15 150 Unit profit before tax $ 50 Management is evaluating the alternative of performing the necessary customizing to allow Electron Control to sell its output directly to Q/A labs for $275 per unit. Although no added investment is required in productive facilities, additional processing costs are estimated as: Direct labor $25 per unit Variable overhead $15 per unit Variable selling expenses $10 per unit Fixed selling expenses $100,000 per year Calculate the incremental profit Electron Control would earn by customizing its instruments and marketing directly to end users.

Exchange as a Basis of Social Life

Exchange as a Basis of Social Life Why, and how, have anthropologists argued that exchange is the basis of social life? Exchange is an act of giving something to somebody or doing something for somebody and receiving something in return.[1] According to the Encyclopaedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, exchange is the transfer of things between social and actors.[2] Things can be human or animal, material or immaterial, words or things. The actors can be individuals, groups, or being such as gods and spirits.[3] In wide interpretation, trade and barter are examples of some kinds of exchange. In this essay, I assume that the gift-exchange is the basis of social life. From the 18th and 19th century, anthropologists became more interested in the topic of exchange. In the past century, there is a growing concern on the complex societies, i.e. the West. It leads to a more critical investigation for the anthropologists on exchange in West, when anthropologists such as Gregory discovered that exchange is linked to economy. By now, exchange is a universal activity. Moreover, anthropologists realized exchange is central to all peoples lives. Mauss stated that, exchange is a total social phenomenon.[4] In the following, I will discuss why anthropologists argued that exchange is the basis of social life. Exchange and Reciprocity The ideological pure gift is very rare in primitive societies. In most of the time, it is a moral to return the gift to the giver. Parry (1986) take the point that the gift is always am Indian gift, which means an equivalent term in return is required.[5] Parry took this point from his investigation on the gift contains some part of the spiritual essence of the donor. And this constrains the recipient to make a return.[6] Thus, we can see that the exchange is related to reciprocity. According to Mauss, gift are the primitive analogue if the social contract, then they clearly carry a social load which in centralized politics is assumed by the state.[7] This is the reason why anthropologists argue exchange is the basis of social life. Let us take the classic example of gift-exchange: the Maori hau. Logically, the hau explains why gifts are repaid. Mauss traces different forms of exchange in order to make out the relation between exchange and reciprocity with the social life. In this essay I will trace different form if In this essay, I will discuss about different types of gift-exchange in different types of society, ranging from tribal societies, i.e. the Trobrainders and Kabre, to the modern daily lives exchange, i.e. Christmas gift exchange and garage sale exchange. These rituals shows how anthropologist argue the statement with the observation or fieldwork The Trobrianders Kula During Malinowskis fieldwork in Trobriand, he clearly examined the essentials of the Kula for Trobrianders and other Melanesia islands in Papua New Guinea. The Kula is a form of intertribal exchange between the Melanesia Islands. It is different from the Oceanic form of exchange. The Kula is based primarily upon the circulation of two articles of high values, but of no real use. The gifts are carried in a circular route which covers miles away over many communities inhabiting a wide ring of islands. All the main transaction in the Kula is public and ceremonial, and it is carried out according to its definite rules. One of the major characteristics of the Kula exchange is that the two items are travelling in different directions: the necklaces (soulava) travel in the direction of clock hand; while the armshells (mwali) in opposite direction. According to Malinowski (1920), both articles never stop for any length of time in the hands of any owner; they constantly move, constantly meeti ng and being exchanged.[8] Kula is essential for the Melanesian because of its sociological function. Sociologically, Kula creates partnership for a lifelong relationship. It is based on a fixed and permanent partnership and relationship which binds people from different tribes into couple some thousands of individuals. As Malinowski observed, the partnership implies various mutual duties and privileges, and constitutes a type of inter-tribal relationship on an enormous scale.[9] Malinowski stated that two Kula partners have to Kula with one another and exchange other incidentally; they behave as friends, and have a number of mutual duties and obligations, which vary with the distance between their villages and with their reciprocal status.[10] He also mentioned that the Kula partnership is one of the special bonds which unite two men into one o the standing relations of mutual exchange of gifts and services so characteristics of these natives.[11] There is a network of relationships in the Kula ring which men know and exchange with each other. In some situation, they will meet in the inter-tribal meetings. Thus, Malinowski pointed out that men are bound together by one common passion for Kula exchange and also, many minor ties and interests. What keeps the relationship long-lasting is the reciprocity of gifts to the giver in the Kula ring. It is expected that the receiver will give back a fair and full value of gift to the giver. Similarly, a fine article must be replaced by the one with equivalent value, not by several minor ones. Gift economy in Kabre In Exchange (1999), Piot explore the understandings about persons, hierarchy and agency that operate in the exchange context in the Kabre society. Same as the Trobrianders, people in Kabre are expected receiver will have to return the gift to the giver. In society, especially in Piots situation he could not understand French when he first came to Kabre gift-giving is a kind of surrogate language. From his experience, Piot suggested that the gifts were attempts to communicate, to bridge the gap between us, to express relationship.[12] He realized that the gift-giving is a type of moral inquiry, which is an interrogation of the other.[13] Despite, there are various forms for exchange in the Kabre society, all forms of exchange are motivated by the practical need of one of the parties.[14] There is a desure to establish social relations behind the Kabre exchange. They are likely to begin ?kp?nt?r? with another person through exchange. Thus, all the exchange in Kabre society is to do with relationships as with utilities. Moreover, through further exchange of items with greater value or quantity, the relationship grows. It is a great sign of friendship. Sometimes, when the relationship of two families grows bigger, there will be an arrangement of marriage so that the relationship will not be broken. If this works, then there will be another marriage in the next generation and so on. As a result, the relationship between the two families will last forever. Economically, Piot argued that the Kabre gift exchange system generates the increased involvement in the wage and commodity sector. He pointed out that by allowing labours to participate more fully in the gift-giving by making money, social relations will then be expanded.[15] Piot take the point that persons use things to gain access to persons rather than that they use persons to gain access to thing.[16] Piot also claims that any gift given establishes a relationship between two persons, hence giving is always tied up with control, power and the appropriation of an other.[17] In the Kabre, exchange does not only form friendships. In the meantime, it forms another basis of social life the formation of marriage, kinship groups and affinity. Gifts Exchange in Christmas Now, let us look at how modern anthropologists argued the statement through their observation of peoples behaviour in the West, capitalist societies. The exchange of gifts is very popular in many parts of the world. In the following, I take in the account that exchange takes place with a generalized medium of exchange, i.e. money. Thus, in order to facilitate trade, barter give way away to selling (C-M), and then the money is then used to buy other commodities (M-C).[18] Carrier examined peoples mindset on exchanging Christmas gifts and he found that it does related to their social relations. The heightening sociality of Christmas highlights the importance of exchanging of gifts, and it reflected peoples Christmas shopping behaviour to the basis of social life. According to Caplow, parents and young children exchange gifts in an unequal value and quantity. In most of the time, the gifts from the parents to their young children have more in quantity and also in value. There is no expe ctation of equivalent return in this relationship. Whereas, for gift exchange between the spouses, there will be an active concern on the gifts are approximate equal in value.[19] Carrier (1993:58) suggested that it is more likely for people to show their affection to their family within a close kin by exchanging Christmas present. As the relationship become more distant, people are less likely to show their affectionate. Rather, it would be a more alienated giving and marks the relations which will be fairly impersonal utilitarian.[20] As mentioned above, apart from exchanging Christmas gifts in Christmas Eves feast, shopping for Christmas gifts is also a highlight for the exchange and it also maintain the basis of social life. Carrier (1993:63) takes the point that the range of social relations will be greater than normal when purchasing for the items. He suggested that this would be an annual ritual to convert commodities into gifts. This ritual allows us to celebrate and recreate personal relations with the anonymous objects available to us.[21] Moreover, Boxing Day allows merchants to celebrate the hierarchical relations outside their households. Seemingly, Christmas is just exchanging Christmas gifts between family and friends. In reality, through exchanging Christmas gifts, it celebrates relations with family, and also those who are distinct from relation in the outside world. Carrier (1993:69) take the point that Christmas is also a reunion of families sanctified and chastened by tender memories and associat ions; and let the social intercourse of friends, with pleasant reminiscence, renew the ties if affection and strengthen the bonds of kindly feeling.[22] Garage sales is American society Some anthropologists look at peoples daily life activities in the West to argue that exchange is the basis of social life. Similar to Christmas gifts exchange, most of the commodity exchange in the West belongs to the category sell-in-order-to-buy in peasant markets which money act as the generalize medium of exchange, i.e. C-M-C. Herrmann looked at the US garage sale exchange culture in order to investigate the social relationship built between the buyer and seller. Herrmann (1997:915) suggested that garage sale exchange allows the neighbours in the neighbourhood come to know each other, as the neighbors are attracted by informal open invitation to the public to stop by and look over the garage sale goods.[23] Moreover, Herrmann (1997:915) also take the point that some neighbourhood garage sale takes place in order to attract the neighbor out of their houses for social interaction. Furthermore, exchange in garage gift generates gift relations. According to Stone Age Economics by Sha lins (1974: 193-194; Gregory (1992:926)), exchange between family members or close kins usually belongs to generalized reciprocity. Thus, in garage sale exchange, the items are given to generalize others. By giving inexpensive garage as a gift, personal networks will then be solidified. In this case, social relations value more than profits. Aside from bringing social interaction and relationships, garage sale ethos also includes friendliness and social egalitarian. Garage sale provides the participants the sense of justice. Low price is the hallmark of garage sales exchange. Thus, a just price for an object is constructed through exchange.[24] Besides, Herrmann (1997:915) bring up the point that social inequalities are reproduced in the garage sales exchange, but it this social inequalities will be muted by the face-to-face egalitarian. This is because social markers such as gender, status, races could act as the factor affecting the transaction of garage sale exchange.[25] Thus, we can see that exchange shows the social basis of the society. Bibliography Carrier, James (1993): The Rituals of Christmas Giving, in Unwrapping Christmas by Miller, D. (ed), Oxford, United kingdom: Clarendon Press, pp.55-74 Carrier, James (1996): Exchange, in Encyclopaedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology by Barnard, Alan and Spencer, Jonathan (1996), USA and Canada: Routledge, pp. 218-221 Drucker, Philip: The Potlatch, in Tribal and Peasant Economies by Dalton, George (1967), Austin, USA: University of Texas Press, pp.481-493 Gregory, C.A.: Exchange and Reciprocity, in Comparison Encyclopaedia to Anthropology by Ingold, Tim (1994), London, United Kingdom: Routledge, pp. 911-939 Herrman, Gretchen M. (1997): Gift or Commodity: What Changes Hands in the U.S. Garage Sale?, American Ethnologist Vol. 24. No. 4 (Nov., 1997), Blackwell Publishing, pp.910-930 Hornby, A S (2000): Exchange, in Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary of Current English, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, pp. 433 Malinowski, Brownislaw (1920): Kula: The Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagos of Eastern New Guinea, in Tribal and Peasant Economics by Dalton George (1967), Austin, USA: University of Texas Press, pp. 171-184 Malinowski, Brownislaw (1920): Tribal Economics in the Trobriands, in Tribal and Peasant Economies by Dalton George (1967), Austin, USA: University of Texas Press, pp.185-223 Malinowski, Brownislaw (1922): The essentials of the Kula, in Argonauts of the Western Pacific, London, United Kingfom: Routledge, pp. 81-104 Mauss, Marcel (1970) [1954]: The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies, London, United Kingdom: Cohen West Parry, Jonathan (1986): The Gift. The Indian Gift and the Indian Gift', in Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 21. No. 3 (Sept., 1986), pp. 453-473 Piot, Charles (1999): Exchange, in Remotely global: village modernity in West Africa, Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press, pp. 52-75 Shalins, Marshall (1974): The Spirit of the Gift, in Stone Age Economics, Chicago, USA: Aldine-Atherton, pp.149-183 Shalins, Marshall (1974): On the Sociology of Primitive Exchange, in Stone Age Economics, Chicago, USA: Aldine-Atherton, pp. 185-275 Weiner, Annette B. (1988): Introduction, in The Trobrainders of Papua New Guinea, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publication, pp. 1-15 Weiner, Annette B. (1988): The Trobrainders: Past and Present, in The Trobrainders of Papua New Guinea, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publication, pp. 17-31 Weiner, Annette B. (1988): Marriage and the Politics of Yams, in The Trobrainders of Papua New Guinea, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publication, pp. 81-96 Weiner, Annette B. (1988): Men Working for Women, in The Trobrainders of Papua New Guinea, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publication, pp. 111-123 Weiner, Annette B. (1988): Kula and the Search for Fame, in The Trobrainders of Papua New Guinea, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publication, pp. 139-157 Hornby (2000:433) Carrier (1996:218) Carrier (1996:218) Gregory (1994:911) Parry (1986:454) Parry (1986:456) Parry (1986:467) Malinowski (1920) Malinowski (1922:85) Malinowski (1922:91) Malinowski (1922:91) Piot (1999:54) Piot (1999:54) Piot (1999:56) Piot (1999:73) Piot (1999:62) Piot (1999:70) Gregory (1992:912) It is one of the categories of production-of-exchange, i.e. commodity exchange Karl Marx developed. This type of commodity of exchange is identified as selling-in-order-to-buy in the peasant markets. Carrier (1993:55) Carrier(1993:58) Carrier (1993:63) Carrier (1993:96) Herrmann (1997:915) Herrmann (1997:916) Herrmann (1997:915)

Influence of Darwins theory on modern psychology

Influence of Darwins theory on modern psychology Charles Darwin was a British scientist, who coins the concept of evolution and geological observation. Charles Darwin was greatly inspired by geologist Adam Sedgwick and Reverent/ naturalist John Henslow. Both mean played a major role in the development of his theory. Darwin draws his ideas from those who believed that the sacred book was and extract of world and humans. His work was of great influence on life and development of natural science and psychological thoughts. Darwins career gave him the opportunity to observed various geological structure around the globe as well as living species .This experience have enhance his intellectual thought and prospective of the earths surface. However Angell (2007) states that Darwinism has never been a really vital issues in psychology (The influence of Darwin on psychology). Darwins theory of evolution has been disparaged by the theologians, biologist and even the psychologist. The heavy criticism came in the light of his book origin of species. Biologist wangled that Darwin could not Thomas Malthus was a British economist, who wrote numerous articles about population growth. Malthus theorizes that the availability of food cannot be compared to the geometrical rate of population growth. Thus, overpopulation constantly leads to unending forces of hunger, virulent disease and poverty. The instinctive struggle for survival arrested Darwin attention; as a result, he used Malthuss approach to the theory of evolution. (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Darwin theory of evolution is essential, because the food supply issues describe by Thomas Malthus, gave young species the opportunity to complete for their survival. The survival of the fittest would then provide; the future generation with the favourable variation of their heredity. Therefore, each generation would improve adoptively throughout the ages and this attempt would gradual succeed in the development of evolutionary species. This approach was added to Darwin scheme of natural selection, thus h e proposed that all species are related to one common ancestor known as the real eve. Moreover, he offered extra support for the core concept that earth itself is not motionless but evolving .Darwin believed that some of the instinct used in Malthus struggle of survival would invigorate the survival scheme. Throughout his research, Darwin concluded that this ongoing struggle between those more and less fit to survive would produce a never ending progression of change in the organism (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Darwin used the ideas of many scholars to develop his theory. He strongly believed that population growth remain pending until existing natural resources becomes stabilized. Thomas Malthus was ordained minister of the gospel, who believed that starvation and illnesses were employed by God to prevent populations growth. He further mentions that lacking these positive checks the population would explode rapidly .Malthus saw life as a divine inspiration that assign men to work fervently. In addition, Malthus dislike most of the statement used by the early philosophers, he believed that human problems can be resolve through the social engineering network. Most of the philosophers, who Malthus dislikes, use his essay as guide to coin their theory (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Alfred Russell Wallace Alfred Russell Wallace was the first British naturalist, who coined the term evolution, due to his natural selection. It was his proposal that Darwin use to formulate his theory. Wallaces theory was publicized at the same time of that of Charles Darwin. According to historians, Wallace and Darwin worked independently, yet uninformed about each others research. Both men shared the same perceptiveness about biological mechanism, in which species gradually change to meet the criteria of their environment. During this era, most persons strongly believed that all species were irreversible merchandise of divine creation (Alfred Russel Wallace biography). Evolution is the process by which transformation occur though enormous diversity of the living species. Studies have shown that all living species have descended from one common ancestor in the past. Wallace philosophy of spiritualism was vast different to those of Charles Darwin thesis of human minds. Darwin saw humans as highly evolved organisms; Wallace believed that the human mind was inspired by something outside evolution and that the human spirit could continue to progress after death (Rocky road: Alfred Russel Wallace). At first Wallace believed that the duties executed by men would normal amend with the current time. However, as time progress, he changes his verdict. He maintained that the entire universe was fashioned by human being, just that we are considered a little lower than angels. As young man, though, he thought differently. In one passage about the King Bird of Paradise, Wallace both marvelled at the existence of such amazing creatures that had so seldom been seen by people, and made a prescient observation about humanitys impact on nature (Rocky road: Alfred Russel Wallace). Herbert Spencer Herbert Spencer was the first sociologist in Derby England. Herbert defined sociology as the study of societal evolution and believed that the ultimate goal of societal evolution is complete harmony and happiness (Evolutionary theory, 2004 p. 434). Spencer embraced Charles Darwin theory of natural selection, after he publishes the book origins of species. Spencer was considered an influential supporter of social Darwinism, and subfield of Darwin hypothesis of human societies. Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest to describe the contest between individuals and groups. He theorized that wealth and power are signs of intrinsic fitness, while poverty is considered as evidence of low standard (Evolutionary theory, 2004 p. 434). Spencer concept of adaption permits him to declare that the rich and powerful are capable to adopt the social and economic means of the current time, while the concept of natural selection allows him to argue that it is normal for the rich to progress at the works of the poor. After all, it is an issue of everyday life. In some case Social Darwinist argue that it is inappropriate to assist those who are weak than oneself, since it will promote survival of someone who is inapt Spencer had many very extreme political views and grew to despise government programs that were aimed to help the poor. In the end it was his harsh views on politics that held his ideas back from being accepted right away. Spencer was like Darwin in some ways, but when it came down to the theory of evolution, Spencer took it one step further than Darwin by saying that it involved much more that just biology (Herbert spencer). Charles Lyell Charles Lyell was a well-known geologist and uniformitarian supporter during the mid 19 century. Being a firm believer of uniformitarian (All about Science) he coined the term uniformitarianism. Lyell supported his hypothesis base on geological observation that the made during his visits to Europe and North American. This theory asserts that the same biological process that operates in the past continues to do so in the same way and with the same gradual force. According to Encarta dictionary catastrophism is the process by which the natal description of earth surfaces was structure by a series of impetuous violent, rather than gradual evolutionary theory. This approach have seen a large extinct of animals and plants. An example of this theory is Noahs flood. During the flood, everything was wiped away except those that were taken into the ark. The catastrophist believed that all species created are irreversible. However, the catastrophist perception was opposed by Sir Charles Lyell in his book principles of geology. Lyell mention in his book, that earths surface is constantly undergoing changes, as a result of the unvarying operation of natural forces. As time progress, Darwin found himself apt to Lyells viewpoint. However, He soon realized that some of his examination of living plants and creature posed great doubt to those of Lyell. Lyell maintained that species were created differently. He further mentions that the remains of extinct species resemble those of living species in the same geographical area (The influence of Darwin on psychology). Although, he had difficulty accepting his own philosophy, his work found favour in the eyes of Charles Darwin (All about Science). Moreover, his works found a source of believe some billions years ago. However, Darwin theory of evolution, did not propose any time frame until he em brace Lyell old earth theories (All about Science). Most scientists accepted Lyell theory because it provides rational explanation and details. Yet those explanation were considered evidence, and even today scientist used Lyell geological explanation with no major questioning. Darwin accepted Lyell work hold heartedly, because it gives him a clear instinct of his beliefs. At one point Lyell retaliated against the theory of geology, because he believed that theory depicts a biased and construal setting of the scripture Genesis (Sir Charles Lyell). Alfred Binet Alfred Binet was French psychology, who was known for success in intelligent testing. In the 1889 Binet discovered the first psychological research laboratory in France. As director of the laboratory, he attempted to develop experimental technique that would measure rational thinking and intelligence. During the 1900s the French government (History of intelligence testing) contacted Binet, seeking his help to develop a theory that would differentiate the difference between mental incompetence and mental stability. As result the said government pass an amendment bill that requires the present of all children in school. Hence the reason was to identify their specialities and to group them according to their learning abilities. With the help of his co-worker, psychologist Theodore Simon, he was able to devise a test that would measure the mental capacity of children. This approach was known as the Binet-Simon scale. After the development of the Binet-Simon scale, the test was soon brought to the United States where it generated considerable interest (History of intelligence testing). Lewis Terman a psychologist at the standard university used Alfred Binet testing to conduct his own survey, the outcome of his finding was known as Stanford-Binet intelligent scale, soon after it was initially change to standard intelligent testing. The Stanford-Binet intelligent testing is conducted by trained professionals, who known how to administered the examination and secure the answers. The method designed to compute the IQ score is dividing mental age by the actual chronological age of the individual taking the examination and then multiply it by 100. For example if an 8year old scores a mental age of 12 her IQ given to her would be 150i;e 1Q of 150(8/12x 100). Although this initiative is accurate in children it does not compute will for adults. Intelligent testing Sir Francis Galton Francis Galton was a British Scientist, who laid the foundation of eugenics. He was also related to Charles Darwin. As result he was the first to acknowledge Darwins evolutionary theory, after he read the book the origins of species. Galton soon became interested in heredity and the measurement of humans; He collected various statistical data on height, dimensions and other characteristics of human beings. Base on quantitative studies of prominent individuals and their family trees, he concluded that intellectual ability is inherited in much the same way as physicals traits and he later published his finding in heredity (Sir Francis Galton). Galton strongly believed that the nature of intelligence have led him to inspire the thoughts, that society should encourage the upper class to replenish the earth , while the lower class refrain from doing so. During the mid 19 century eugenics was seen considered social Darwinism. Social Darwinism entails the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. When applied to humanity it simply suggest the rich are wealthy off than the poor, and more successful in life. The controversy between the rich and poor permits the continual development of the species in orderly and timely manner, thus contributing to better society. Galton conduct a further probe to investigate the difference between the effects of heredity and those of environment ( Sir Francis Galton ). Base on his finding he was able to detect how education and environmental factors influence our mental ability. Galton continues to recognize heredity as prominent influence, regardless of his finding. Galton was among the first scientist to study twins, who had been separated from each other as means offering insight into the nature -nurture controversy (Sir Francis Galton). They contribution made by Galton provides valuable so urce for both psychologist and educators.

Summary of To Kill a Mockingbird Essay -- To Kill a Mockingbird Harper

Summary of To Kill a Mockingbird Mayella testifies next, a reasonably clean nineteen-year- old girl who is obviously terrified. She says that she called Tom Robinson inside the fence that evening and offered him a nickel to break up a dresser for her, and that once he got inside the house he grabbed her and took advantage of her. In Atticus' cross-examination, Mayella reveals that she has seven siblings to care for, a drunken father, and no friends. Then Atticus examines her testimony and asks why she didn't put up a better fight, why her screams didn't bring the other children running, and--most importantly--how Tom Robinson managed the crime with a useless left hand, torn apart by a cotton gin when he was a boy. Atticus begs her to admit that there was no rape, that her father beat her. She shouts at him and calls the courtroom cowards if they don't convict Tom Robinson, and then bursts into tears refusing to answer any more questions. In the recess that follows, Mr. Underwood notices the children up in the balcony, but Jem tells Scout that the newspaper editor won't tell Atticus-- although he might include it in the social section of the newspaper. The prosecution rests, and Atticus calls only one witness--Tom Robinson. Tom testifies that he always passed the Ewell house on the way to work, and that Mayella often asked him to do chores for her. On the evening in question, she asked him to come inside the house and fix a door. When he got inside, however, there was nothing wrong with the door, and he noticed that the other children were gone. Mayella told him that she had saved her money and sent them all to buy ice cream, and then she asked him to lift a box down from a dresser. When he climbed up on a chair, she grabbed his legs, scaring him so much that he jumped down. Then she hugged him around the waist, and asked him to kiss her. As she struggled, her father appeared at the window, calling Mayella a whore and threatening to kill her, and then Tom fled. Link Deas, Tom's white employer, stands up and tells everyone that in eight years of work, he has never had any trouble from Tom. Judge Taylorexpels him furiously from the courtroom for interrupting; then Mr. Gilmer gets up and cross-examines Tom. The prosecutor points out that the defendant was once arrested for disorderly conduct, and gets Tom to admit that he has the strength, even with one ha... ...n her costume) has no idea what is happening. Boo Radley's entrance takes place in the thick of the scuffle, and Scout does not realize that her reclusive neighbor has saved them until she has reached home; even then she assumes him to be "some countryman." When she finally realizes who has saved her, the childhood phantom has become a human being: "His lips parted into a timid smile, and out neighbor's image blurred with my sudden tears. 'Hey, Boo,' I said." After Boo's unveiling, all that remains of the story is Heck Tate's decision to say that Bob Ewell fell on his knife, sparing Boo the horror of publicity. The title of the book and its central theme are invoked, as Scout says that exposing Boo to the public eye would "sort of like shootin' a mockingbird." Then she takes him home, and Atticus' admonition to step into someone else's shoes is also invoked, as Scout suddenly sees the world through Boo's eyes. The novel ends here, and the reader is offered no details of Scout's future, except that Boo is never seen again. We have a sense, however, that the story has embraced her entire childhood, and Scout thinks that they have not much more to learn, "except possibly algebra."

Columbia Space Shuttle- Final Mission :: American History, NASA

Columbia Final Mission Wayne Hale, Deputy Shuttle Manager Wrote: "Last year we dropped the torch through our complacency, our arrogance, self assurance, sheer stupidity and through our continuing attempt to please everyone". "Seven of our friends and colleagues paid the ultimate price for our failure. Yet the nation is giving us another chanceÂ…..We must not Fail" More then three years ago the Space Shuttle Columbia went down in flames, due to the damage caused but not limited to, a piece of insulating foam that broke off the external tank and struck the wing's leading edge. The foam struck with enough force to create an opening in the wing which allowed hot plasma to enter during reentry. No one thought that foam could cause this much damage since nothing like this had resulted from previous instances where the foam had come off. In the beginning NASA was faced with a tight budget given to them by the government. This budget was large enough to build a state of the art air craft but wasn't enough to develop an escape system that might of proving to be useful in this case. The culture of NASA was a factor that created this mistake, "The mantra "Prove to me that there's something wrong". The chain of command was not equal; the small guys couldn't voice their opinions and concerns because of the position they held in the organization. Another concern was that they miscalculated the risk of the foam creating any damage just because it never destroyed another shuttle. The facts were clear that the foam had the ability to create some damage, and this was apparent in many other space shuttle launches. Foam debris was classified as an "in-family" event- a problem within NASA experience base that was not considered a safety of flight issue. NASA even knew that foam debris tended to fall off the left bipod ramp and t hat ten percent of the fights recorded loss foam from this area. Over the years NASA decided to put their concerns of foam damage to the side and called it an acceptable thing to happen during common flight procedures instead of finding a way to prevent it. On its first day in orbit NASA engineers came to the conclusion that the foam debris that hit the left wing might have caused severe damage to the shuttle and could prevent it from a safe reentry.

Ethical Issues in Nursing

Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Critical Thinking is based on clever thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinking is an analytical thinking that’s help in order to solve problems which occur on an everyday basic. Understanding how to figure out a resolution in order to solve a problem is a very great technique in all areas of life. Which is helpful in everyday living, for example school. While attending college I’ll be taking classes in order to become a Register nurse. This gives me an opportunity to use my thinking skills in new ways.Also critical thinking will help me to have a better view and understanding of material and the capability to perform and succeed in classes. Having the knowledge of critical thinking can help in many different careers. As for nursing, critical thinking plays a very important part in your work. Problem solving and decision making are two of the most essential common thinking processes used in nursing. So it’s very important to identify facts and evidence from opinions keeping a open mind while being a creative problem solver.For example, I use to work at this nursing home and we were having issues with not knowing if residents were having bowel movements. My director of nursing was trying to come up with an idea on what to do. That when I got an idea a BM chart! I had to think it out before I presented it to my director. Finally when I had it all fine points I presented it to her and it worked. That made me believe you can success by staying focus and open minded. You have to try new things in order to see what works. If you don’t try it you will never know.Remember to challenge all information unless it provides you with facts and evidences. Ethical Behavior Ethical behavior is a standard I hold for myself honesty and accountability, and how you treat others in all walked of life. Like the golden rule you treat other as you want to be treated. I live by that rule I do people like I want to be done. I feel like you get further in life having a positive attitude toward others. As for me I work in a hospital so that rule really applies. I’m dealing with all kinds of people, sicknesses and even death.This helps me to relate and have a better understanding toward the patients, families and coworker feeling. Even companies have ethical behavior that’s expected of you and what’s not when hiring an employee. Reflection Reflecting back over the steps it took me in order to write this paper. First off I was totally unsure about what I wanted to write, so I then began to think about the word critical thinking and what it means. That’s when I began to jock things down that I wanted to write in my paper. Finally I got me a cup of coffee sat in front of my computer and began typing.Last but not least I’ve been proof reading over and over, adding and subtracting words and sentences until I had my final essay. Quote â€Å" In order to get the most out of life, everyone needs to develop rational life plan that â€Å"would be chosen by him with full deliberative rationality, that is, with full awareness of the relevant facts and after a careful consideration of the consequences. ( Rawls, 1929-2002, p. 13) Reference Boss, A. J. (2012). Think critical thinking and logic skills for everyday (2nd ed. ). New York: New York.

Apush Notes

1. The Shaping of North America 1. Recorded history began 6,000 years ago. It was 500 years ago that Europeans set foot on the Americas to begin the era of accurately recorded history on the continent. 2. The theory of â€Å"Pangaea† exists suggesting that the continents were once nestled together into one mega-continent. The continents then spread out as drifting islands. 3. Geologic forces of continental plates created the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. 4. The Great Ice Age thrust down over North America and scoured the present day American Midwest. 2. Peopling the Americas 1.The â€Å"Land Bridge† theory†¦ 1. As the Great Ice Age diminished, so did the glaciers over North America. 2. The theory holds that a â€Å"Land Bridge† emerged linking Asia & North America across what’s today the Bering Sea. People were said to have walked across the â€Å"bridge† before the sea level rose and sealed it off and thus populated the Americas. 2. The Lan d Bridge is suggested as occurring an estimated 35,000 years ago. 3. Many peoples emerged†¦ 1. Those groups that traversed the land bridge spread across North, Central, and South America. 2. Countless tribes emerged with an estimated 2,000 languages.Notably†¦ 1. Incas – Peru, with elaborate network of roads and bridges linking their empire. 2. Mayas – Yucatan Peninsula, with their step pyramids. 3. Aztecs – Mexico, with step pyramids and huge sacrifices of conquered peoples. 3. The Earliest Americans 1. Development of corn or â€Å"maize† around 5,000 B. C. in Mexico was revolutionary in that†¦ 1. Then, people didn’t have to be hunter-gatherers, they could settle down and be farmers. 2. This fact gave rise to towns and then cities. 3. Corn arrived in the present day U. S. around 1,200 B. C. 2. Pueblo Indians 1.The Pueblos were the 1st American corn growers. 2. They lived in adobe houses (dried mud) and pueblos (â€Å"villages† in Spanish). Pueblos are villages of cubicle shaped adobe houses, stacked one on top the other and often beneath cliffs. 3. They had elaborate irrigation systems to draw water away from rivers to grown corn. 3. Mound Builders 1. These people built huge ceremonial and burial mounds and were located in the Ohio Valley. 2. Cahokia, near East St. Louis today, held 40,000 people. 4. Eastern Indians 1. Eastern Indians grew corn, beans, and squash in â€Å"three sister† farming†¦ 1.Corn grew in a stalk providing a trellis for beans, beans grew up the stalk, squash’s broad leaves kept the sun off the ground and thus kept the moisture in the soil. 2. This group likely had the best (most diverse) diet of all North American Indians and is typified by the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw (South) and Iroquois (North). 5. Iroquois Confederation 1. Hiawatha was the legendary leader of the group. 2. The Iroquois Confederation was a group of 5 tribes in New York state. 3. They were matri lineal as authority and possessions passed down through the female line. 4.Each tribe kept their independence, but met occasionally to discuss matters of common interest, like war/defense. 5. This was not the norm. Usually, Indians were scattered and separated (and thus weak). 6. Native Americans had a very different view of things as compared to Europeans. 1. Native Americans felt no man owned the land, the tribe died. (Europeans liked private property) 2. Indians felt nature was mixed with many spirits. (Europeans were Christian and monotheistic) 3. Indians felt nature was sacred. (Europeans believed nature and land was given to man by God in Genesis to be subdued and put to use). . Indians had little or no concept or interest in money. (Europeans loved money or gold) 4. Indirect Discoverers of the New World1. The 1st Europeans to come to America were the Norse (Vikings from Norway). 1. Around 1,000 A. D. , the Vikings landed, led by Erik the Red and Leif Erikson. 2. They landed i n â€Å"Newfoundland† or â€Å"Vinland† (due to all of the vines). 3. However, these men left America and left no written record and therefore didn’t get the credit. 4. The only record is found in Viking sagas or songs. 2. The Christian Crusaders of Middle Ages fought in Palestine to regain the Holy Land from Muslims.This mixing of East and West created a sweet-tooth where Europeans wanted the spices of the exotic East. 5. Europeans Enter Africa This content copyright  © 2010 by WikiNotes. wikidot. com 1. Marco Polo traveled to China and stirred up a storm of European interest. 2. Mixed with desire for spices, an East to West (Asia to Europe) trade flourished but had to be overland, at least in part. This initiated new exploration down around Africa in hopes of an easier (all water) route.3. Portugal literally started a sailing school to find better ways to get to the â€Å"Spice Islands,† eventually rounding Africa’s southern Cape of Good Hope. . New developments emerged†¦ 1. caravel – a ship with triangular sail that could better tack (zig-zag) ahead into the wind and thus return to Europe from the Africa coast. 2. compass – to determine direction. 3. astrolabe – a sextant gizmo that could tell a ship’s latitude. 5. Slave trade begins 1. Slavery was initially race-independent. A slave was whoever lost in battle. Usually, slaves came from the Slavic regions of Europe, hence the name. 2. The first African slave trade was across the Sahara Desert. 3. Later, it was along the West African coast.Slave traders purposely busted up tribes and families in order to squelch any possible uprising. 4. Slaves wound up on sugar plantations the Portuguese had set up on the tropical islands off of Africa’s coast. 5. Spain watched Portugal’s success with exploration and slaving with envy and wanted a piece of the pie. 6. Columbus Comes upon a New World 1. Columbus convinced Isabella and Ferdina nd to fund his expedition. 2. His goal was to reach the East (East Indies) by sailing west, thus bypassing the around-Africa route that Portugal monopolized. 3.He misjudged the size of the Earth though, thinking it 1/3 the size of what it was. 4. So, after 30 days or so at sea, when he struck land, he assumed he’d made it to the East Indies and therefore mistook the people as â€Å"Indians. † 5. This spawned the following system†¦ 1. Europe would provide the market, capital, technology. 2. Africa would provide the labor. 3. The New World would provide the raw materials of gold, soil, and lumber.7. When Worlds Collide 1. Of huge importance was the biological flip-flop of Old and New Worlds. Simply put, it was a trade of life such as plants, foods, animals, germs. . From the New World (America) to the Old 1. corn, potatoes, tobacco, beans, peppers, manioc, pumpkin, squash, tomato, wild rice, etc. 2. also, syphilis 3. From Old World to the New 1. cows, pigs, horses, wheat, sugar cane, apples, cabbage, citrus, carrots, Kentucky bluegrass, etc. 2. devastating diseases – smallpox, yellow fever, malaria as Indians had no immunities. 1. The Indians had no immunities in their systems built up over generations. 2. An estimated 90% of all pre-Columbus Indians died, mostly due to disease. 8. The Spanish Conquistadores 1.Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494 – Portugal and Spain feuded over who got what land. The Pope drew this line as he was respected by both. 1. The line ran North-South, and chopped off the Brazilian coast of South America 2. Portugal got everything east of the line (Brazil and land around/under Africa) 3. Spain got everything west of the line (which turned out to be much more, though they didn’t know it at the time) 2. Conquistadores is Spanish â€Å"conquerors†. 1. Vasco Balboa – â€Å"discovered† the Pacific Ocean across the isthmus of Panama.2. Ferdinand Magellan – circumnavigated the globe (h e was the first to do so). . Ponce de Leon – touches and names Florida looking for legendary â€Å"Fountain of Youth†. 4. Hernando Cortes – enters Florida, travels up into present day Southeastern U. S. , dies and is â€Å"buried† in Mississippi River, 5. Francisco Pizarro – conquers Incan Empire of Peru and begins shipping tons of gold/silver back to Spain. This huge influx of precious metals made European prices skyrocket (inflation). 6. Francisco Coronado – ventured into current Southwest U. S. looking for legendary Cibola, city of gold. He found the Pueblo Indians. 3. Encomienda system established 1.Indians were â€Å"commended† or given to Spanish landlords 2. The idealistic theory of the encomienda was that Indians would work on the farm and be converted to Christianity. But it was basically just slavery on a sugar plantation guised as missionary work. 9. The Conquest of Mexico 1. Hernando Cortez conquered the Aztecs at Tenochti tlan. 2. Cortez went from Cuba to present day Vera Cruz, then marched over mountains to the Aztec capital. 3. Montezuma, the Aztec king, thought Cortez might be the god Quetzalcoatl who was due to re-appear that very year. Montezuma welcomed Cortez into Tenochtitlan. . The Spanish lust for gold led Montezuma to attack on the noche triste, sad night. Cortez and men fought their way out, but it was smallpox that eventually beat the Indians. 5. The Spanish then destroyed Tenochtitlan, building the Spanish capital (Mexico City) exactly on top of the Aztec city. 6. A new race of people emerged, mestizos, a mix of Spanish and Indian blood. 10. The Spread of Spanish America 1. Spanish society quickly spread through Peru and Mexico 2. A threat came from neighbors†¦ 1. English – John Cabot (an Italian who sailed for England) touched the coast of the current U.S. 2. Italy – Giovanni de Verrazano also touched on the North American seaboard. 3. France – Jacques Cartier went into mouth of St. Lawrence River (Canada). 3. To oppose this, Spain set up forts (presidios) all over the California coast. Also cities, like St. Augustine in Florid # 4. Don Juan de Onate followed Coronado’s old path into present day New Mexico. He conquered the Indians ruthlessly, maiming them by cutting off one foot of survivors just so they’d remember. 5. Despite mission efforts, the Pueblo Indians revolted in Pope’s Rebellion. 6.Robert de LaSalle sailed down the Mississippi River for France claiming the whole region for their King Louis and naming the area â€Å"Louisiana† after his king. This started a slew of place-names for that area, from LaSalle, Illinois to â€Å"Louisville† and then on down to New Orleans (the American counter of Joan of Arc’s famous victory at Orleans). 7. â€Å"Black Legend† – The Black Legend was the notion that Spaniards only brought bad things (murder, disease, slavery); though true, they also brought good things such as law systems, architecture, Christianity, language, and civilization, so that the Black Legend is partly, but not entirely, accurate.